Situations and styles of leadership | Free essay | Management essays

Situations and way of lifes of troikainghip Free essay Man whilement essaysIntroduction attracters has been the conkic of discussion and research in the schemeal Behavior literature. A grand collection of antithetical theoretical framework has been developed to make out elements of attractions. Incessant self assessment, reading, guidance, experience and never ending process of self-study develops good leaders in a society. Many companies be facing high turnover, absenteeism, low morale among employees and numerous other such issues related to the phone line environs. For all these problems companies inquire proper in effect(p) leading. The purpose of this physical composition is to charter an in-depth insight on the major research findings of an effective lead styles and situations and their procedure in placemental carrying out by look backwarding the research literature.In this re insure paper establishmental surgical operation is being judged by th e motivational level of the employees and job satisfaction factor. So this review paper gives a clear insight concerning (the theories of leaders) factors that boost leaders among employees which is consequently linked with organizational proceeding. This review paper will help extinguishrs to look at the major concerns which lead to great leading and how to hired manle challenges and unlooked-for situations occurring in an organization. Effective leading sess be expressed where leaders exploit classify members, pursual or subordinates in a way that this will help them to achieve common terminuss.leadership and its MeaningAs this world is changing so is the definition of leadership. Over the years leadership has been described according to the circumstances. Effective leader is the cardinal who is able to match his level of skills to the maturity of the subordinates. The word has been be in so many terms that giving a single definition will non be justified. In gear up to understand the authentic meaning of leadership angiotensin-converting enzyme has to study the topic itself thoroughly. Todays world is so complex and fast changing that we backsidenot just stick to one definition of the leadership. As the competition from the other blind drunks comes in the organization so the ideas, so they broaden the meaning of what leadership is. As described by Thomas B. Allen (1988) the word leadership refers to a process of social sour, in which one person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common projection. A to a greater extent than apt and inclusive definition with regard to accessorys comes from Robert J. House (1996) who secernates that leadership is ultimately about creating a way for mint to contri plainlye to reservation manything extraordinary happen. Another definition comes from literature which states that effective leadership is the ability to fortunately integrate and maximize available resourc es indoors the essential and external environment for the attainment of organizational or societal goals. Kirkpatrick Locke (1991) suggested with their study that effective leader is an individual with the capacity to consistently succeed in a presumption condition and be recognized as meeting the expectations of an organization or society. The analysis suggests that effective leadership can ingest positive meet on overall performance.Effective leadership can be described as giving a vision to the group up-members and developing the path for the followers to achieve the utter around output. In order to gain high level of organizational performance leaders have to read sweet, innovative and challenging techniques to line, motivate and manage the subordinates. Leadership is all about performance of the subordinates, classifys, and organizations good leadership promotes valuable group performance which in turn leads to high growth and expansion of a home.A leaders backgr ound, life experiences, and day-after-day communications define his or her leadership style. The contrariety in the midst of a good leader and a great leader is his or her ability to adapt to throw. In an organization usually leaders and subordinates work together to understand the behavior of to each one other and drive to manage their behavior to produce more beneficial results, Davis RV Tim Luthans. F (1979). accord to Avery, G.C. Jing F.F. (2008) due to the complexity of leadership it is broken into five varied perspectives competency, behavioral, casualty, transformational, and implicit. Leadership is a method by which an individual persuades other people in a group to achieve an objective and leads the organization in a way that makes the squad members interconnected and coherent. Bass (1989 1990) explains one-third types of theories of leadership. correspond to him there is a trait hypothesis which states that in some people have in born traits which lead the m to become a leader. Second theory is great event theory which is related to the crisis or primary(prenominal) event. It states that sometimes some major events or crisis progress their marks on an individual personality which may bring out leadership qualities in an ordinary person, do him an extraordinary leader. Third is Transformational leadership theory which is most widely accepted theory of recent years. In it people by choice prefer the path of becoming leaders through learning and proper education. Leadership has certain set attributes like values, ethical motive, belief, k straight offledge and skill etc., which if followed properly can make an individual a good leader.Robert D. Rossel (1970) in his paper argued that there ar ii lovelys of predilections, instrumental and expressive, attached to the effective leadership in an organization. According to him, leadership orientation depends on the nature of organization. Different organizations contract different kind of leadership orientation among supervisors and autobuss. He further state, if we put one over an example of organizations like mental hospitals, prisons etc where the environment is more segregated and isolated, the most successful leadership will be informal and expressive. Whereas formal and instrumental leadership will be required in organizations dealing in production and table gain side. Author explained the instrumental orientation to leadership as one which is more childbed point, the important focus of such type of leadership in an organization is to motivate team members, to maintain product quality. While, expressive orientation to leadership is all about getting along with the group members and the conduct of perverseness, and inattentiveness in leadership may interfere with the goals of organization. Author stated that the orientation to leadership similarly vary depending upon the labor commitment required for any particular organization. According to the find ings of this paper, this can be affirmed that organizations where there is a high labor commitment demonstrate a very definite instrumental orientation in top centering (F-Ratio 2.39, Mean 1.25) and an expressive orientation in lower supervisors (Mean -0.17).In terms of superior performance, effective leadership leads to people who find fulfillment in their jobs, work with enthusiasm passion, and perform quality work, with innovation and creativity. Effective leaders conduct to be able to endorse ideas and ideals as well as promote ideologies. Another quality seen in efficient leaders is how they can shift their groups caution towards the goals and objectives at hand by providing strategies regarding how to achieve the desired goals. They not only provide the physical resources required for the job such as alsols and administrative or technical assistance, but also the psychological ones such as motivation, education and agreement. The most efficient leaders can also adapt to different environments according to the need of the hour and provide their workers with all the support and attention they require in order to successfully fulfill the task at hand.Hogan Kaiser (2005) defined leadership as a process of team building in which every member work well according to the set rules defined by the leader to outperform the competition. They further elaborated regarding the conventional definition of leadership over time, which defined leadership as the person who has the ability to influence others can be a leader but according to the author group performance should be the measure of leadership. They stated that in order to judge and assess the leadership one should look at the team performance. Three implications of this view should be noted. First, leadership involves influencing individuals unforcedly to contribute to the good of the group. Second, leadership requires coordinating and the guiding group (by adopting the most appropriate way) to achieve i ts goals. Finally, goals vary by organization and their life cycles. Leadership is the most essential item required for creating a team out of a group of individuals. One of the most imperative qualities of a good leader is that they can make individuals on team a single unit leading to synergy. Effective leaders can convince their team members to concentrate on their role indoors the team sooner than their individual goals. An indicator regarding the success of a leader is the success of his or her followers. The draw difference in explaining the long term performances of the firms is in the main attributed to an exceptional leadership. Superior performance is achieved when an organization is generating the maximum level of profitability possible with the help of three key determinants efficiency, adaptations, and human resources. A business environment is more plausibly to succeed when it has people with high levels of skills, commitment and mutual trusts. Many times leaders p erformance is constrained with respect to the nature and size of it of an organization. Each leader performs within the set limits of an organization, which actually hinder the real outcomes. In other words, the structure and size of a firm basically depicts the extent of leaders performance.Organizational PerformanceIn order to understand the meaning of organizational performance first we have to look at the definition of organization. Aldrich (1979) in his book organizations and environment explained organization in three ways a) goal oriented b) terminus ad quem maintaining, and c) activity system. By goal directed he means that the end objective of all organizations is to earn profit and to maximize the wealth of shares holders. Members of an organization behaves as if they have some defined goal, all of them work to achieve some specified purpose. This means members of an organization are task-oriented do not merely work for social interaction. purposeful behavior and delibe rate design of activity systems distinguish organizations from other groups, such as families, friendship circles, audiences and mass publics. By boundary maintain he meant that organizations have defined clearly among the members of an organizations and non-members. And all members of an organization work collectively under the inadvertence of some authority to obtain defined goals. Activity system can be described as a system in an organization where all members are assigned some activities to achieve some predefined goals within boundary of an organization.The major component of effective organization is having a talent management team, which will be headed by a leader. Organizational performance need to be studied in relation to the status of employee satisfaction to assess how good the firm is doing in the market. In order to evaluate the effectiveness and efficiency of an Organization one has to look at the performance of the workers. Employees perform best when they are high ly motivated resulting in increased number of customers and high growth rate.Thomas. B. Alan. (1988) entailed through his study that organizational performance is highly variable term. He further argued that organizational performance depends on various kinds of factors such as leaders styles and behavior, leader-subordinate relation, firm size etc. which definitely has a great impact on the performance of a firm. One of the main precedent shag this is that assets like leadership behaviors, organization culture, skill and know-how, and motivation are seen as the most important factors of strength in those firms which involve group, procedures and organizational performance, Avery, G.C. Jing F.F. (2008). on that pointfore, leaders and their leadership style influence both their subordinates and organizational outcomes.Organizational performance increases if the employees are highly motivated and satisfied with team leader and their work. As per Ohio State University research succ essful leadership has two behavioral dimensions which play very important role, a. Consideration in this kind of behavior leader of a group is concerned about the team members. This aspect of leadership is linked with leadership traits of kindliness, discussion with subordinates, appreciation and respect of team members and supportiveness, b. Initiating Structure this type of leaders behavior is more towards work done. They are more concerned about work and task. Leaders who fall into this category of style are much planned, coordinated, and clear about their goals, criticize poor work, and unendingly pressurize subordinates to work more effectively.Leadership StylesEffective leadership involves the study of different styles of leaders. The literature suggests that some types of leadership styles are preferred over others. This is specially true under different working conditions as well as the subordinates relation with the leader. Rotemberg. J.J Saloner. G. (1993) concluded thr ough their study that leadership style of a firm is spoted by the stakeholders to maximize the ex ante profits. According to their study the leader of the group (team Manager) exercises his power in different ways. They considered leadership styles as a) Locus of control, internal locus of control in which leader feels whatever happens is because of their own strategies and actions, external locus of control in which they feel environment is responsible for whatever contingency in their lives, b) Flexibility, few leaders are flexible and they are open to hot ideas and thoughts, whereas some leaders have been identified as rigid. CEOs whose style is more rigid tend to lead firms with fewer innovations and do not delegate easily. Leadership style includes not only motivating and providing direction to the people but also implementing the plans. The needs of the employees play an important role in identifying the approach that a leader uses. An often overlooked quality within leader s is helpfulness. They not only need to encourage teamwork but also provide all sorts of support required to their team members. Studies also suggest that there is evidence that states kind leaders tend to perform better. Leaders need to use multiple approaches while dealing with their subordinates, some of which include relationship development, training and professionalism of subordinates and time allotments. The three well known styles of leaderships are authoritative, participative and delegating, James D. Boulgarides William A. Cohen (2001).AuthoritativeThis is a style where the leader is in complete control and orders his subordinates regarding their duties without any consultation from them. This style is not very popular with the subordinates and is only effective if the leader has complete knowledge regarding the subject as well as definitive plans regarding how to execute the project. This style is looked pour down upon and should only be practiced on the rarest of occa sions when time is of the essence. It can be used within certain limits if the subordinate is unfamiliar with the job in order to guide them more effectively.ParticipativeThis is the suggested style of leadership within organizations as it makes sure all the voluminous parties are taken into account while making decisions. It is used when the leader knows about the final goal but wants to discuss the different options regarding procedures required to complete the goals. In this style the subordinates are informed of the goal by the leader and then an interactive discussion is carried out regarding how to achieve the stated goals. Even though all the subordinates are taken into consideration the leader remains in firm control and is the one who determines the plan of action based on the input provided by the subordinates. This style is mutually beneficial and ensures an environment of teamwork which leads to better performance.DelegatingThis is when the leader leaves the decision up to the subordinates. This style is usually used when the employees are more informed regarding the subject than the leader and can try out the situation better and come up with a better plan regarding what needs to be done. Even though the employee is the one taking the decision, it is still the leaders responsibility. The leader still has to delegate tasks in this style. This style is only suggested when the leader has complete confidence in the ability of his subordinates.Davis. R.V.Tim Luthans. F. (1979) envisioned a model consisting of quaternion basic styles called the decision style model. These styles included Directive, Analytic, Behavioral and Conceptual.DirectiveThis is an autocratic style which is usually adopted when the leader has a need for power. Such kind of leadership style is more effective in situations where subordinates are ill informed or ill equipped for the task at hand. The model focuses on technical decisions and leaders do not consult and take very les s advice from the subordinates. The leaders who practice this style are very performance oriented and therefore they operate with a lot of control. They tend to be aggressive and tend to achieve their desired results by hook or by crook. They also tend to have very dominating personalities.AnalyticThis type of leader is a lot less authoritative than the directive type of leader and has more tolerance for ambiguity. They also tend to have more approachable attitude as they tend to want input from everywhere before reaching a decision. This style is best suited for the ability to cope with new situations which is why this system is an efficient problem solver. These leaders are usually not too hasty with decisions and take their time in evaluating all their options.ConceptualThis style uses data from various sources and analyzes all possible solutions with great details and looks at each and every alternative. It is quite similar to the behavioral style. The relationship surrounded b y the leader and his team is one of openness and trust. The leaders are usually idealists therefore ethics and values play a key role. They have a long range focus and have high amounts of organizational commitment. They are usually understanding towards their team and adapt well according to different situations. They tend to like to have less control and tend to encourage a team confinement and participation on an equal level. They want to see their team develop as a whole and even though they are achievement oriented they value independence as well.BehavioralThe coachs who practice this style of leadership are highly concerned with their workers well being and tend to be a great source of support for their employees as they are highly people oriented. They are very open and easy to communicate with. They are also willing to compromise more and can be persuaded and welcome suggestions. All these qualities show that they tend to have lost control. They aim to be accepted and like d and fend off conflicts. They have a low data input.Hunt. J. G. (1971) discovered through his study that an ineffective leader leads to conflicts on multiple levels as well as a highly uninviting work environment both of which lead to organizational inefficiency. The overall environment becomes negative as employees do not take their coachs mischievously and through study it can be concluded that leadership requirement at different levels of management may vary markedly. It seems seeming that when a leader has enough knowledge of two different types of management level then they perform better as compare to managers who have knowledge of only one management level, but definite kind of knowledge is likely to be dependent on various kinds of situations. Many managers use penalties which instill fear of mistakes within the employees. Authoritative leaders may cut days off, yell and demean their workers and abuse their power. They feel that intimidating their employees and increasi ng their authority will lead to more productivity however what happens is that there is more tension, employees become scared, morale falls and the organizational performance is affected. The autocratic style of leadership is greatly discouraged within organizations and should only be used when dealing with new employees who are unfamiliar with the organizational culture as it does not work well with the more experient employees as suggested by research. A separate style of leadership is a laissez-fare style in which the leader does not manage his employees and only guides them. This happens only when the employees themselves select an informal leader for guidance.All these different styles of leaderships are suited to different environments. A behavioral style might be very successful in a certain environment yet might fail abysmally in another so a good leader adapts to these different environments with different styles. Therefore not all leaders are successful in all environment s which is why certain leaders are chosen for certain situations. Spillane. J.P., Halverson R Diamond. B. J (2004) proposed this approach is not a viable option in the current day scenario as there is constant change. He suggests that leaders should now be chosen for their ability to deal with a wide range of tactics and that leaders should become more efficient in applying tactics rather than approaching different styles of leaderships. He also states that extremes of flexibility and rigidity are the least efficient styles. According to Fielder (1967) almost anything is easier to change than a managers style which is why a leader should not pretend to be something they are not. Leaders who act as facilitators are most liked among the followers and are most easy to understand. Flexible leaders also tend to adapt more easily to new situations compared to rigid ones. Efficient Flexibility doesnt mean a change in personality, all it is, is a change in tactics.Situational LeadershipThe objective of this review paper is to explain effective leadership in different situations and its role in a firm. It is essential to elaborate few theories which have substantial importance in Organizational Behavior literature. Situational leaders are those who can coordinate, guide, handle and direct his team members in all kinds of known and unknown situations (situational factors). There are few aspects which lead to situational decisions such as motivation and efficacy of followers. This, in turn, is affected by factors within the particular situation. Another factor which may affect leaders behavior is the relationship shared between followers and leader.According to the situational theory purposed by Hersey and Blanchard (1969) leader should be able to motivate his followers in order to make them perform their task efficiently and effectively. Leaders should work in a way that they will motivate their followers and increase their development level. On the basis of these lin es they have come up with quatern leadership styles that are consistent with the four development levels for followers. 1) S1 Telling / directing when in a team followers are unable to understand the task and afraid to perform their duties then the leader will guide and coordinate them properly. Leaders in this situation identify the real problem occurring to the follower and try to solve it. Leaders uphold the position of boss so that all assignments will be done properly within time. 2) S2 Selling / coaching when the follower is able to understand his task to some extent and he looks confident in this, then telling him will be equal to discouraging them. So in this type of situations leaders have to guide his team members very carefully and instead of telling, the leaders have to sell the techniques of working, explaining and clarifying decisions. First two styles are more leader oriented. 3) S3 Participating / supporting when followers can perform and they dont show the results then leaders have to be very patient role and deal this situation with expertise. Leaders should find out different ways to motivate the followers and if grounds of not showing performance would have been found then leaders should tackle them properly. 4) S4 Delegating / Observing in this type of situations followers know their jobs and they dont need any guidance but still its important for leaders to keep a check on the performance of the followers in order to ensure that everything moving according to the set plan.Bruno Leo F.C. (2006) explained the profile of leadership styles of Brazilian supervisors or CEO based on the situational leadership styles purposed by Hersey et al (1969). In his paper he elucidated that results showed that most of the executives are seen accepting the styles S2 (48.29% relative frequency distribution) and S3 (28.60% frequency distribution). So this shows that they have capabilities of working with followers of average level of willingness. Though the y sometimes face problems regarding discipline and work with groups. precaution theorists of the past essay to discover the best form of leadership for all situations however modern day researchers have realized that different environments lead to a significant impact on the effectiveness of a leader. Fielder (1967) carried out extensive research regarding how different situations affect leadership effectiveness. According to his research the relations motivated manager is most effective where the leader doesnt need much power whereas the task related manager performs well when his relations with his employees are good and when he has a strong control. In an unfavorable condition neither of the leaders would be effective so an alternative solution would be to replace the leader.In order to provide a solution for the style-situation issue Vroom Jago, Arthur. G (2007) found an approach that dealt with the interaction between the leader and his subordinates. The model suggested that situation played a great role for a style to be effective. It also concluded that subordinate motivation and technical effectiveness play a key role in sharing of leader power and if neither of these are important than the leader himself takes the decision. If motivation is low but technical difficulties are still important then the leader tries to gain more information and if technical difficulty is not important and motivation is high then delegation might be the answer. Lastly if the problem level is high and a need for acceptance is present then the decision is shared within the group. This shows that there is a consent in the behavior in different situations. Sometimes interpersonal behavioral patterns are also transferred when work performances change in order to meet new requirements. Different task demands also lead to changes in leaders. Another point of view regarding styles of leaders is one of Fiedler (1974).Fenwick F Jing, Avery, G.C. (2008) found out trough their rese arch that it is very difficult to define the relationship of leadership-performance. After doing concentrated research they accepted the four leadership paradigms as a tool of measurement the concept of leadership, (visionary, transactional, classical and organic paradigms).Avery (2001) identified 13 indices to measure these above mentioned leadership paradigms out of which 9 were used in the research of Fenwick F Jing, Avery, G.C. (2008). Many researchers who are constantly working on defining the leadership concept in groups have been able to link it with functional approach. In functional approach the main target of a leader is to get the job done and increase the level of performance. Thus, in such kind of approach leader ensures that every task should be completed in time. All team members actively participate in order to accomplish the task. The main objective of a leader behind this approach is to complete the functions, while leadership can be categorized as a way of proble m solving achieved by common responses to social problems. In order to understand the functions four broad types of functions have been identified 1) well informed and structured team, 2) proper use of information in hand to solve the problems, 3) managing and control human resources, and 4) proper usage of resources. Burke, C. S., Stagl, K. C., Klein, C., Goodwin, G. F., Salas, E., Halpin, S. M. (2006).Several studies show that the leader faces few obstacles regarding the organizational life cycle. There are five different stages of an organization and the changes which include, changes in management focus, organizational structure, top management style, control system and reward emphasis. Things that added to these changes and made the decision process harder included the size and age of the organization, its stage of evolution and the growth rate of the industry.Substantial numbers of management scholars have debated the effectiveness of leadership styles, behaviors and situatio ns when selecting measurements of performance there is a correlation between financial performance and customer satisfaction. Several reasons indicate that there should be a relationship between leadership and performance. The first reason relates to practice. Todays intensive, dynamic markets tout innovation-based competition, price/performance rivalry, decreasing returns, and the creative destruction of existing competencies therefore effective leadership behaviors can facilitate the improvement of performance when organizations face these new challenges. Lumijrvi.I. (2007). Understanding the effects of leadership on performance is also important because leadership is viewed as one of the key driving forces for improving a firms performance.The fortuity Model of Leadership EffectivenessIn this section contingency theory has been described which was actually originated by Fiedler. Fiedler. E. Fred (1972). Contingency theory helps executives and leaders to motivate and guide their followers in order to get better results for an organization. This theory is all about how leaders lead their groups in different situations, which predict followers capabilities and behaviors. There are few similarities between Contingency theory and situational theory. Former deals with the ability of leaders and see how they handle their followers to achieve high organizational performance in all kinds of situations. Also there is an important difference between the two theories. Situational possible action is more focused towards the behavior of the leader, depending upon the situations (often about follower behavior) whereas contingency theory talks about the bigger picture and it embraces group aspects about leader competence and other variables within the situation.This model was purposed by Fiedler in (1964) and (1974). According to this model they have explained two categories of motivational oriented leaders i.e. one is the task-motivated leaders and second category is r elationship- motivated leaders. Author described that whenever some unexpected situation occurs in an organization both types of leaders react or respond to the situation differently. Many researchers have worked on this model and proves that leaders with task-motivated orientation mostly perform effectively in all types of situations, whereas leaders which fall into the second category (relationship-motivated) perform best in situations in which their control and influence is moderate. They further elaborated that leaders performance is l focusing Leadership Styles TescoManagement Leadership Styles TescoExecutive SummaryThe retail organisation whose management and leadership styles will be investigated is Tesco PLC. One will be analysing the management and leadership styles that are currently used by Tesco and whether these styles are effective, and also recommend if they could change or adopt any new styles which may be of more benefit to them.1.0 IntroductionTesco PLC is one of t he leading retailers in the United Kingdom and one of the largest food retailers in the world. Tesco has diversified by also selling non-food goods, such as electrical and also clothes in their farm animals. The initial size of the federation indicates that the types of management and leadership styles and the way these are handled are crucial for the success of this firm.Similar to most companies, the management and leadership styles adopted within Tesco are likely to have continuously been adapted in correlation with the growth of the company over the years. Although the current management style has evidently been successful here in the UK, it is highly likely that they would not be able to use this same management style in certain countries overseas, namely Japan and China. The primary reason for this is due to the different cultures and values which have been adopted by these respective countries and this is something that will be taken into account. The management and leaders hip styles analysed below, are approaches which are likely to be implemented by Tesco.2.0 Management Leadership definitionManagement is the organisational process that includes strategic planning, setting objectives, managing recourses, deploying the human and financial assets needed to achieve objectives, and measuring results (Stuhlman Management Consultants, 2007). Boddy (2005) defines management as the activity of getting things done with the aid of people and other recourses. Mintzberg (1973) makes this definition even simpler by stating, if you ask a manager what he does, he they will most likely tell you that he plans, organizes, coordinates and controlsHannagan (1995) states that Leadership can be seen as performing the influencing function of management, largely involved with establishing goals and motivating people to help achieve them. Leaders decide where we are going rather than describe how we are going to get there.House (2004) states that leadership is the ability o f an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organizations of which they are members.For a manager to make his/her subordinates work effectively, the have to be motivated. Motivation is a key factor that must be held by a manager or a leader because a de-motivated workforce leads to lower productivity. A manager keeping his workforce motivated is ensuring that his/her subordinates are working at a high level of productivity. Masterson and Pickton (2004) define motivation as the complex relationship between needs, drives and goals It is therefore ideal for a manager or leader to identify the needs, find out what drives workers, and subsequently, set them goals.3.0 McGregors Theory X and YOne of the most influential theories on the understanding of leadership is created by the work of Douglas McGregor (1960) in developing theories X and Y. He believed that managers took two different views of their subordinates and conducted practices that would best suit their precondition of the workers they were in charge of.Theory X managers, take the thinking that people dislike work, and only work as it is a necessity for survival. They perceive workers to be lazy people who want to avoid responsibility, who lack ambition and would prefer to be directed, rather then use initiative to take roles of responsibility. Mainly, these managers believe people want security from there jobs, therefore the managers take a very directive approach to leadership and are very strict and controlling with their subordinates. Organisational goals already established and workers are pushed in a certain direction so that these goals can be fully achieved.On the other hand, Theory Y managers take an immensely different view to the theory X style of management. Theory Y managers believe that people see work as a daily occurrence and actually accept and strive to have some responsibility. They believe that if workers are in t he right conditions, they will work hard their own will, service of process the organization achieve the set out goals, and in return, being rewarded for this hard work and effort. In this scenario, managers will work together with subordinates, deciding work objectives and by developing strategies designed to achieve these goals. They will encourage team working and also delegate decision making when and were possible.In relation to Tesco, the management are likely to take a theory X approach in running their organisation. Due to the enormity of the number of subordinates a manager is likely to be in supervision of, it would be almost impossible to use the latter approach. Furthermore, the tasks needed to be carried out by workers do not require many skills, for example shop floor duties such as shelf stacking, checkouts and sales assistants carry out basic duties. As a result, these workers would need constant supervision and direction to ensure consistency and continuity in orde r to achieve the firms goals. Therefore, for Tesco, a theory X approach to management in their stores is the most effective management style.4.0 Ohio State University ModelThe initiating structure is the pattern of leadership behaviour that emphasises the performance of the work in hand and the achievement of production or service goals. Boddy (2005) states This behaviour involves the managers concern for directing subordinates in order to achieve production targets. It is a task-oriented approach, where managers tend to be highly directive and emphasise completing a task according to plan. This behavioural approach to leadership relates to Tesco in that, managers at Tesco are more concerned with getting the job done and reaching store targets rather then taking a consideration dimension which involves more the concern for people. Boddy (2005) states that typical behaviours includedAllocating subordinates to specific tasksEstablishing standards of job performanceInforming subordinat es of the requirements of the jobScheduling work to be done by subordinatesEncouraging the use of uniform procedures5.0 Blake and Moutons Management GridThe management grid identifies a range of management behaviours based on various ways that task-oriented and employee-orientated styles can interact with each other. When looking at Appendix 1, in relation to Tesco, the management would identify themselves mostly to an Authoritarian management style (also known as produce or perish style), which has a high concern for production and efficiency and concentrates less on people. They take a task oriented approach which takes in hand the needs of the task in hand rather then the wants of subordinates. This is again, similar again to the Theory X approach stated approach, and is effective to Tesco where there is a larger amount of lower-skilled employees.6.0 Herzberg Two Factor TheoryHerzberg was interested in discovering how need satisfaction occurs in a workplace and the impact of mot ivation on behaviours and attitudes. Fincham and Rhodes (2005) stated that Herzbergs two factor theory involved, firstly the motivators and secondly the hygiene factors. hygiene factors involved supervision, salary, work environment, company policies and relationship with colleagues. The absences of these were seen as dissatisfying aspects of a job which can affect the morale of workers. Herzberg stated that this is followed by several motivators, which include responsibility, achievement, progression and recognition. In relation to Tesco, subordinates of the managers such as shop floor employees, are unlikely to achieve the motivators stated by Herzberg, therefore are likely to be dissatisfied and de-motivated in their jobs. This can be very negative for a firm like Tesco as a de-motivated workforce is obviously more uncreative then a motivated workforce. Taking this into thought, it is vital for managers to tackle motivational issues of the workforce and see that the hygiene fa ctors of employees are met, making it an effective approach to adopt.7.0 end and RecommendationsAll in all, the evident success of Tesco shows that the management and leadership styles they are using are immensely successful. Management styles used such as the Theory X approach and authoritarian management are undoubtedly operating well. However, a 2007 DataMonitor Company report based on Tesco states that Tesco are looking to transmute into foreign countries such as Japan and China, and as a result, they may well have to reconsider the management and leadership strategies which they have in place. The reason for this is that the world of work differs in Japan and China compared to that of the UK as they place a large amount of emphasis on Total Quality Management (TQM), also know as Kaizen. This is a well renowned strategy in these countries and has become some what of a norm for workers there. As a result, it maybe wise for Tesco to implement a similar strategy to adopt and emu late already successful strategies used in Japan and China. Total Quality Management is an operational philosophy that stresses commitment to customer satisfaction and continuous improvement, TQM is committed to quality and excellence and to being the best in all functions. Hunger Wheelen (2003) state that in order for TQM to succeed in a company, the program usually involves a significant change in corporate culture, requiring strong leadership from top management, employee training, empowerment of lower level employees (giving people more control over their work), and teamwork. In order for Tesco to implement such a strategy, they may have to cast away the autocratic management approach and may have adopt a more democratic style of management, in which the wishes and suggestions of the members are incorporated into those of the leader, as stated by Huczynski and Buchanan (1991). Although it may be hard to change from a management style which has been ever so successful for the f irm, it may be crucial to adopt a new strategy in order for Tesco to be successful in their foreign ventures.8.0 ReferencesAcademic TextbooksBoddy, D (2005). Management An Introduction. 3rd Edition. Essex FT apprentice Hall.House, R Hanges, P Javidan, M Dorfman, P Gupta, V. (2004) Culture, Leadership, and Organizations The GLOBE Study of 62 Societies, SAGE Publications, Thousand OaksHannagan, T (1995). Management Concepts and Practices. 2nd Edition. London Pitman Publishing.Hunger, J Wheelen, T (2005). Essentials of Strategic Management. 3rd Edition. Essex Pearson Education Inc.Huczynski, A Buchanan, D (1991). Organizational Behaviour. 2nd Edition. Hertfordshire, Cambridge University Press.Fincham, R Rhodes, P (2005). Principles of Organisational Behaviour. 4th Edition, Oxford, Oxford University PressMintzberg, H. (1973) The Nature of Managerial Work, harper and Row, New YorkMasterson, R Pickton, D (2004) Principles of Marketing, Berkshire, McGraw HillLecture NotesMeyer, M CORP 246 3, Week 4 Lecture Notes Leadership, Influence and Power (2007), De Montfort University

The Impact Of Education

The Impact Of preceptEvery year the Mauritian judicature devotes an increasingly large share of its budget to the development of the education sector. The reason for such an enlarge in government investment in education lies in the belief that education has a direct partake on the economic emergence of the country. In most developing countries, like Mauritius for example, education is regarded as a powerful instrument for reducing poverty and removing social and income inequalities, improving economic harvest-festival and standards of living, and percentage the country to reinforce its autonomy. Appiah and McMahon (2002), Burneth et al. (1995) and others suggest that education also has slightly positive indirect effects such as increasing longevity, improving democratization and political stability, and reducing poverty and crimes. teaching is considered as an investment in kind being enceinte. Human enceinte can be described as the knowledge, abilities and skills of an individual, acquired through education, training and experience, which help the latter to be more than productive and thusly improve his potential income earning. Ismael (1998), Becker (1964) and Mincer (1974) dumbfound emphasized on the incident that, by investing in human beings, we pass on gain from some forms of benefits in the future. However, Blankneau and Simpson (2004) find no clear evidence on the link mingled with government spending on education and economic developing.Human nifty is whizz of the most important comp unitarynts of sustainable economic development of a country as illustrated by Lucas (1988) and Romer (1990) in their unfermented growth literature. The expanded neoclassical growth specimen developed by Mankiw, Romer and Weil (MRW) (1992) and the endogenous growth simulations developed by Lucas (1988), Romer (1990), Barro (1990) and others defy only recently stressed on the importance of human smashing in growth theories. Even though human capita l incorporates health, experience, skills, education and other social pointors, in this paper we will concentrate only on the role of education and its effects on the economic development of Mauritius. One problem that arises is when dealing with the measurement of human capital. In fact, there is no concur definition of which proxy should be utilise to represent human capital. Generally, the median(a) number of years of information has long been seen as a convenient proxy. just about researchers, for example, Mankiw et al. (1992) use secondary readjustment as proxy for education and Barro (1998) uses enrolment in different levels of education, i.e. primary, secondary and tertiary, and also readjustment by gender as proxies. In our study we will be using the average number of years of different knowledge levels as proxies for education. Petrakis and Stamatakis (2002) put on stressed on the fact that each different level of education has different impact on growth. For examp le, they find that the effect of primary and secondary education on the economic growth of developing countries is more significant than that of tertiary education, and for developed countries it is the reverse situation that takes place.Since it improves human capital, we could say that education does affect economic growth predominantly, but actually, the impact of education on the economic development is quite ambiguous. There were countless debates over the years by researchers over whether education has a positive, negative or no kindred at all with the economic growth of a country. Barro (1991) finds that education has a positive and significant impact on economic growth. He observes that any rise in enrollment rate, raises GDP too. De Meulmester and Rochet (1995) provide evidence that this relationship may non always be true. Devarajan et al. (1996) find that education has a negative impact on economic growth for some developing countries. They deduce that developing countr ies are non productive at the margin because these countries do not fairly allocate their public capital expenditure and this explains the opposing relationship between education and economic growth. almost other researchers, such as Hanushek and Woessmann (2007), find that it is in fact the quality of education that promotes economic development and not the quantity of schooling or schooling attainment. They observe that the skills of the population straight off affect the distribution of income and economic growth. The purpose of this paper is to determine the impact of education on the economic growth of Mauritius.2.1 Effects of EducationEducation is a never ending process and as said in a famous diction, Education starts from the womb and ends in the tomb. Education benefits the society by helping to increase economic growth, reducing poverty, reducing crimes, increasing employment and so forthand also helps the individual to earn higher(prenominal) income and therefore impro ves the latters living standard.The figure below gives a rsum of the effects of education at the micro and macro levels.Source Michaelowa, Katharina. (2000) Re covers to Education in Low Income Countries Evidence for Africa.The above diagram shows the micro and macro effects of education. There are irrefutable evidences that connect education to economic growth and education in form of human capital boosting productivity. Education is in fact productivity-enhancing. It is said that a person without basic literacy and numeracy skills have many difficulties in completing basic tasks of everyday life, which therefore shows the importance of education.Education affects the growth of the economy in various ways. We here discuss the direct effects of education. Education is said to be connected to the notion of empowerment. Individuals with a sure level of higher education not only have good job with interesting wages but also augment productivity of the economy. Some studies have shown that GDP per capita rises by 1 to 3 percentage points following a 1 percentage point increase in school enrollment rates. Therefore, education is said to increase individuals wages along with the augmentation of productivity and finally GDP per capita.Here we discuss indirect effects of education. According to Glewwe (1999), Schultz (1993), Hobcraft (1993), and Thomas, Strauss and Henriques (1991) mothers schooling have indirect positive effects on the economy. It is said that an additional year of mothers schooling will induce the child to be in a come apart health and encourage them to learn which will eventually increase their chances to be a productive person in the future and affect the economy positively.Furthermore, meliorate individuals are more likely to be aware about family planning and this will ultimately reduce childbirth. This results in families having more or less 1 to 2 children, that is, a smaller family where more time is dedicated to the childrens education. T his attention in return motivates the children to be more motivated at school and have better results. These children are thus encouraged to pursue their education to higher levels.Moreover, educated workers are more likely to adapt to new technology and new working techniques easier than illiterate workers. It is also said that an educated workforce is more productive than an uneducated workforce, that is, the return of an educated worker is higher compared to that of an uneducated one. high returns have a positive impact on the economic growth.Michaelowa (2000) uses the example of an educated granger who uses new agricultural techniques to produce goods. Through education, the farmer will acquire the knowledge and skills required to use these new agricultural techniques and therefore he will be more productive compared to other farmers who are remedy using traditional techniques. The other farmers in the neighborhoods will tend to do the same in set to achieve higher profits, so this causes both the farmer and the neighbors to have higher returns and in turn increases GDP per capita.Mincer (1974) says that there is a relationship between education and individual earnings which in turn produce private returns. The Mincerian equation helps to differentiate between the different levels of education and distinguish their effects on the economy. He also birdsongs that an additional year of schooling will lead to higher private returns.2.2 Theoretical FrameworkRamsey (1928), Solow (1956), Swan (1956), Cass (1965) and Koopmans (1965) among others developed the neoclassical model of economic growth. In his model, Solow (1956) claimed that two important factors persistent growth, namely the quantity of labor and the capital stock. The neoclassical model assumes diminishing returns to capital and labour independently, and the input- outturn ratio is determined by exogenous scientific factors. This model does not take into account the effects of factors such as human capital, health etc on the economic development. In fact, Schulz (1961) proved that labor and capital did not explain completely the increase in output and Lucas (1988) pointed out that investment in human capital is one of the main determinants of economic development. Moreover, in order to offset the adverse effects of diminishing returns, thus allowing the economy to grow, the neoclassical model suggests that the country must invest heavily in technology. In theory, this is one of the reasons why low-income countries with low ratios of capital to labor are likely to grow faster than rich countries. But empirical results have shown some inconsistencies with this hypothesis as demonstrated by Summers and Heston (1988).Later, Lucas (1988), Romer (1990), Barro (1991) and others developed the endogenous growth models in order to overcome the shortcomings of the neoclassical growth models. In the endogenous growth model, exogenous technological progress does not affect steady gro wth. This model introduces human capital as an input in the form of effective labor and implies that the accumulation of human capital directly affects labour productivity. The main difference between effective labour and physical labour lies in the fact that the former is calculated by taking into account labour quality such as educational level, training and skills. Both Lucas (1998) and Romer (1990) have used agents to represent the effects of human capital in their models respectively. According to Romer (1990), human capital is the decisive input that generates new products and technology in the Research Development sector and therefore this implies that countries with high levels of human capital stocks will grow faster due to the more rapid development of new products and technology generated by them. Lucas (1988) incorporates human capital in his model and claims that the accumulation of human capital will enhance productivity of other factors and thus will boost economic g rowth. He also affirms that never-ending increases in human capital will result in never-ending economic growth. In his model, human capital is a measure of abilities and skills used in intersection by a worker. However, Grossman and Helpman (1994) state that it is some form of knowledge which can eventually cause never-ending growth, not human capital.Schultz (1999) outlines the importance of human capital through education and health in determining economic growth. He insists that education increases both masss awareness and their investments on health services, and also healthy people tend to be more efficient and therefore more productive.2.3 Empirical EvidenceBarro (1991) finds that education and economic growth are highly correlated. He uses enrollment rate as a proxy for education and per capita GDP as a proxy for economic growth. Data are collected across more than 100 countries during the years 1960 to 1990 and Barro finds that each additional year of enrollment increases per capita GDP. Bils and Klenow (2000) also come across similar results in their research. They find that variation in schooling explains approximately one third of the variation in economic growth. Although Bils and Klenow (2000) provide evidence of the positive relationship between education and economic development, they also claim that more growth could result in more education and not the opposite, i.e. there is a reverse reason effect.Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1995) use cross-country data make up of 90 countries over the time span 1965-1985. They employ the AK framework, which displays constant return to capital as it assumes that the other elements (labor and technology) that determine GDP grow pro rata with capital. In other words, each increase in capital increases output correspondingly. Their results indicate strong positive relationship on the long-run between average GDP per capita and the level of educational attainment, terms of trade and life expectancy. However, so me researchers claim that the vitrine of regressions performed by Barro and Sala-i-Martin (1995) may be subject to reverse causation effect as stated before. For example, a rise in GDP could increase investment in education as the economy develops. Such type of results will have great influence on our research as we want to study the impact of education on the economic growth and not the reverse.Akcabelen (2009) uses the ARDL approach to determine the short-run and long-run effects of different levels of education on Turkeys economic development. Secondary enrollment and tertiary enrollment are used as different proxies for education and this enables us to examine the impact of each level of education on the economic growth. Akcabelen concludes that there is positive correlation between all levels of education and the long-run economic development of Turkey.Loening (2002) uses time-series data from 1951 to 2000 and applies the error-correction methodology to analyze the impact of education on the economic growth of Guatemala. He observes that output per worker increases by 0.16 percent following a 1 percent rise in the average years of schooling. So he agrees on the fact that education does have a positive impact on the overall economic development of the country.Afzal et al. (2010) use time series data from 1970-2009 to analyze the relationship between education, physical capital, inflation, poverty and economic growth in Pakistan. According to their findings, education and physical capital have both a positive and appreciable effect on economic growth in the short-run as well as in the long-run. They also find that inflation slows down economic growth in the long-run and poverty has no effect at all on the economic development of Pakistan. Other researchers, such as Kakar et al. (2011), have used time series data for the time span 1980-2009 and apply the Error Correction Model (ECM) and come to the conclusion that education influences Pakistans economic d evelopment only in the long-run. They also observe that the quality of education is more important than the quantity of education in achieving economic growth, so the government should increase its investment in education with the aim of enhancing the quality of education further.Since Mauritius is part of Africa, it is also good to see the results of researches conducted in other African countries. Fonkeng and Ntembe (2009) use enrollment and GDP as proxies for education and economic development and they notice that education at higher level, i.e. at tertiary level, is positively correlated with economic growth of Cameroon. Musila and Belassi (2004) use government expenditure on education as proxy for education for the years 1965 to 1999. They apply the cointegration and the ECM methods and find that there is positive correlation between average workers expenditure on education and the economic growth of Uganda. Ndiyo (2007) uses time series data from 1970 to 2000 on real education expenditure, real capital formation and GDP, and employs the VAR technique. Based on the results obtained after computations, Ndiyo (2007) demonstrates that education does not have a positive effect on the economic development of Nigeria. He suggests that this result can be explained by various factors such as labor market distortions, redundancy, brain drain, industrial disputes and job discontinuities, and government failure etc.Khorasgani (2008) analyses the impact of higher education on Irans economic development for the period 1959 to 2005. The proxies used for human capital are education attainment and research expenditures. Khorasgani (2008) uses the Cobb-Douglas outturn function together with the ARDL method to determine the short-run and long-run effects of higher education on the economic growth. The study demonstrates that real output increases by 0.314 percent in the long run and 0.198 percent in the short run following a 1 percent increase in higher education attainme nt. Hence, higher education has a positive and significant impact on the economic development of Iran..

Benefits And Barriers To Ehr Health And Social Care Essay

Benefits And Barriers To Ehr wellness And Social C atomic number 18 EssayHealth informatics is a multidisciplinary theater of operations which covers medicine, technology and tidy sum. The bea puts an emphasis on implementation of learning technology and computer science to health care to better manage it. E-health or electronic healthcare is a relatively bracing discipline introduced to improve patient care, shorten delay times, and celebrate errors in clinical settings. Electronic health move into (EHR) is an electronic record of patients medical checkup history which accepts besides is not limited to medications, X-rays, e very(prenominal)ergies, immunizations etc often vexed by authorized personnel (doctors, nurses and pharmacists) at hospitals and clinics. This exit replace paper and eliminate the destiny for manual paperwork which is unreliable and tedious. According to International Journal of Medical Informatics V. 78, By 2041, 22% of the Canadian population is expected to be aged 65 or over, up from 13% in 2001 (The Change Foundation, 2005). As the elderly population start to retire, the cost and demand of healthcare increases drastically. This also increases the risks of diseases with aging such(prenominal) as type two diabetes, cardiovascular disease, different types of cancer, arthritis, Alzheimers disease and more. soly, new and efficient organizations are needed for this to better get across this trend. EHR is necessary to fulfill the gaps in the midst of health supply and demand, it get out benefit patients, health care personnel and improve health care system overall. at that place are both benefits and barriers to EHR fortunately, in that respect are ways to overcome the barriers and implement EHR in Canada. The main benefit of EHR for patients include the general improvement for flavor of care by providing detailed cultivation nearly patients medicine intake and history, consequently preventing errors in the future. Othe r benefits include the mobility of records from medical institutions, hence helping those in remote areas. There would also be fewer waiting times in hand brake rooms and clinics since medical personnel provoke instant price of admission to patients record. EHR also benefits healthcare providers and workers by lessen time spent on paperwork and increase productivity while providing efficient and comprehensive care to the patients. In spite of this, some critical barriers do prevent it from adoption. The major concern is privacy of patients records and security. Privacy is a very significant issue and individuals want their information to be in safe turn over. Other barriers include initial setup cost and training for new technologies. Overcoming these barriers leave require time and incentives both from public and government which will be discussed later. In conclusion, implementing electronic health records in Canada and overcoming the barriers will benefit patients, healthca re personnel and improve the healthcare system overall.Background pertly technology has benefited humans to a big(p) extent and EHR is certainly no exception. EHR has existed in Canada for a while but it is still not fully acknowledged by the public. There are tv set commercials from Canada Health Infoway promoting and raising wittingness of EHR in Ontario and British Colombia. The Canadian government has dedicated $1.6 billion to Health Infoway whose objective is to implement a pan-Canadian EHR and provide records to all Canadians by 2015. Alberta has already launched a successful system called Netcare which lets physicians, hospitals and pharmacists nettle secured online system and observe patients health information. Netcare is one of the reasons why Alberta has the most efficient and best health care system in Canada.On the opposite hand, Ontario has recently set uped from an appalling scandal which resulted into an estimated $1 billion wasted. eHealth Ontario has come und er criticism as well. In April 2009, the provinces opposition parties argued that the government wasted $647 million developing electronic health records before they shut down the SSHA only to start again from scratch with eHealth Ontario (CBC News, 2009). The Health ministry of Ontario needs to take responsibility, stop wasting taxpayers money and implement this system which is long overdue. Other countries have already introduced EHR, such as United Kingdom, Australia, the Netherlands and New Zealand. Canada and United States are still debating adoption and falling poop. Majority of the countries which have implemented EHR have national health insurance system which is funded through taxes, akin(predicate) to Canada. Yet Canada is trailing behind due to ethical and political barriers. It is disappointing to some extent that Canada as a developed nation still lags behind other countries in health care advancements. Nonetheless, these barriers can be solved through increased fund ing, incentives and engraftment of secure systems.How does EHR benefit patients and health care workers?Physicians will benefit greatly from EHR, according to the International Journal of Medical Informatics V. 76 A recent survey of U.S. primary care physician arrange that almost 75% indicated that these applications could reduce errors 70% perceived IT as potentially increasing their productivity over 60% indicated that IT tools have the potential to reduce costs and help patients assume more responsibility (J.G. Anderson/E.A. Balas, 2006). EHR helps medical staff keep track of patients prescribed medicines, previous health conditions, allergies and chronic diseases. This ensures physicians are fully aware of situation and can provide proper treatment with smaller chances of reservation errors. EHR provides access to current information at the point of care. It gives medical service providers access to key patient information along with online decision support and reference tool s. It also helps reduce the possibility of medical errors, assists with compliance issues, and decreases the potential for adverse dose reactions. Features like lab value trends and drug monographs also help with patient consultations. (Alberta Netcare, EHR). This benefits both physicians and patients.For example, if someone has a minor or major accident and is hasten to an emergency room for medical attention, the doctor is required to question the patient for previous medication, history, allergies etc. It is difficult for a patient to recall their history in such a state and is generally unable to communicate. This wastes time and becomes more likely for the doctor to misdiagnosis. According to Health Infoway, Right now in Canada, the want of a comprehensive EHR system, for every 1,000 Hospital admissions, 75 people will suffer an adverse drug event Patients with an ambulatory encounter, 20 will suffer a serious drug occurrence Laboratory tests performed, up to 150 will be un necessary Emergency room visits, 320 patients will have an information gap, resulting in an average increased stay of 1.2 hours (Strasbourg, Health Infoway). If EHR were present, the doctor would have had instant access to patients medication history, allergies thus avoiding unnecessary testing. Also, it would allow a faster diagnosis with little or no mistakes. This will save great amount of time in emergency rooms therefore reducing lines and making health care system more efficient. Some hospitals in North America do possess EHR systems but its restricted to that specific institution. If EHR connections between hospitals and other medical institutions are established, it becomes easier for health care practitioners to assess patients and provide service. As a result, EHR allows medical professionals in remote areas to access information using earnings and vice versa. In conclusion, there are some major benefits to EHR which could provide assistance to Canadas healthcare system and improve quality of care.What are the barriers and risks?There are some significant barriers which prevent EHR from implementing in Ontario and other provinces. The main and most controversial barrier is privacy and security of patients health record. EHRs contain very in the flesh(predicate)ised important information about a patient which includes demographics, prescribed medicines, allergies, immunizations, lab tests, X-rays and other reports. It would be devastating and very dangerous if records fall into the wrong hands and/or are mistreated. There has been an incident where a patients privacy was not respected. A guilty plea and hefty fine for unauthorized access to personal health information sets a very important precedent for health care providers, says Information and Privacy Commissioner Frank Work. A medical office salesclerk from Calgary pleaded guilty to charges of improperly accessing another persons medical information, in contravention of the Health Information Act (HIA). The individual appeared in Calgary court Friday and was fined $10,000. This is the first time that charges have laid under the HIA. (Office of the Information and Privacy Commissioner of Alberta, 2007) This creates fear in the minds of the public and privacy and security is at stake despite laws and regulations. These incidents are rare but they do expose the lack of privacy and vulnerability of EHR to disloyal employees. There are also claims that EHRs access to internet and broad systems make it vulnerable to hackers. habitus 1 shows different factors which affect the objective of implementation. (International journal of medical informatics V28)Another barrier to EHR is the initial setup costs and hiring/training staff for new technologies. Developing integrated organizations can be costly and require years before efficiencies are realized. Information technology supports integrated care as EHR allows physicians to access patient information through centralized networ k (Mary E. Wiktorowicz, p. 301). This can be very expensive because governments have to establish centralized system to store, protect and handle records. As mentioned earlier, vast amount of funding ($1 billion) for eHealth has already been wasted in Ontario and it will be more difficult for taxpayers to reimburse this especially during these cutting economic times. Great incentive and financial support is needed from public to accomplish this venture. entirely paper records have to be transformed into electronic which will be very time consuming. In conclusion, there are some significant barriers which hinder the implementation of EHR.Overcoming barriersAs mentioned already, there are existing laws which already protect the privacy of Canadians. EHR must obey The Privacy Act whose purpose is to extend the present laws of Canada that protect the privacy of individuals with respect to personal information about themselves held by a government institution and that provide individua ls with a right of access to that information (Privacy Act 1985, c. P-21). The Government of Canada and medical institution have a responsibility of protecting and insuring the security of medical records. Alberta has also introduced Health Information Act (HIA) which setup guidelines for both patients and health care workers. This act requires workers (authorized) to access files only when necessary and in professional manner. So removed there has only been one situation which set a precedent and sent a serious message to all health care custodians and their employees. This is a very serious matter, and health care providers must know that surfing records for personal purposes will not be tolerated and individuals will be prosecuted (Wayne Wood, 2007). Medical personnel that violate policy and law are held criminally responsible and their jobs are taken away immediately. Thus it would not be wise for any staff to commit such actions which would cost them their jobs, salary or even end up in jail.EHR are still more secure than ordinary paper records. For example, in November 2008 a reporter of RTV West, a local Dutch radio network, asked for a copy of medical records in several hospitals and asked to fax them to his home. He easily got six out of eight requests without any questions. In the two other cases the hospitals solely requested a written permission (i.e. a signature) (Laurens J. van Baardewijk, Amsterdam Law Forum). This exposes the weak and unsecure system of paper records. Fax machines, telephone and mail systems are very unreliable. There have been numerous incidents involving paper medical records either used improperly by clinical staff or stolen by an intruder and used for sinful purposes. This is due to lack of security and reliability of traditional paper records. On the other hand, EHR requires login information from health care professionals and authorization is required from patient and worker. All EHR systems are encrypted and only acces sible to authorized users (doctors, nurses, health care workers). Encryption is established into multiple layers which require multiple login sessions and online security monitoring. This makes it extremely difficult for hackers to access the system consequently, EHR system is both safe and secure. sign costs are very high and taxes have to increased once again to successful establish this system.An EHR system in Ontario does not necessarily have to cost a fortune, because they could simply borrow and emulate the system from other provinces such as Alberta. McMaster University has already developed a beta system for EHR in hospitals but Ministry of Health is not paying close attention. Nonetheless, EHR system will be established very soon throughout Canada and once its established, itll decrease medical costs by $6 billion. This will eventually decrease the amount of taxes issued significantly, especially in Ontario. It will also create new jobs in health informatics field and prov ide training to nurses and doctors. It is estimated around 40,000 new jobs will be created. The benefits of EHR are far greater than the risks and barriers. EHR will certainly benefit Canadians and improve our health care system.ConclusionEHR has benefits, barriers and risks, but it is now evident that the benefits outweigh the risks. EHR will be on tap(predicate) to all Canadians soon in the future despite the barriers because as population increases, diseases increases and senior citizen population increases accordingly. Therefore, demand for health care rises as more people are waiting in lines for hospitals and clinics. Comprehensive and efficient EHR systems are very crucial to meet health demands of citizens. Some key benefits include the improvement of quality of care by providing information about history consequently preventing errors in the future. Other benefits include the mobility of records from medical institutions and reducing waiting times in emergency rooms and cl inics since medical personnel have instant access to patients record. It also benefits health care providers and workers by reducing time spent on paperwork and increasing productivity while providing efficient and comprehensive care to the public. Privacy and security issues still remain nonetheless, they will be resolved with new laws and technological improvements. Initial setup will be expensive but EHRs benefits are vital to Canadas health care system. Canada needs to catch up to other developed countries in health informatics and improve health care system. To conclude, implementing EHR in Canada will benefit patients, health care personnel and improve health care system overall.

Essay --

Question 2 aUnified Process would be an appropriate choice for this project. style of Thinking Unified Process is a predictive and adaptive approach of softw are development methodology based on object oriented principles. (Satzinger & Others, 2005) It is put on case driven approach focused on developing the system incrementally by delivering the captured functional requirements in iterations. (So-Young & Ho-Jin, 2005) Creating different artifacts throughout the development process eliminates the chance of undefined requirement and miscommunication. (Rational, 1998) Modularity embedded in the process allows developing and delivering of system in components. Maintaining software quality and requirement changes are integral part of process. (Daoudi & Nurcan) (ISQA 8220 Notes) course of Working UP is use case driven methodology developing system iteratively and incrementally thereby adding flexibility to process. This flexibility allows us to quickly react and brook frequent cha nges during development process. (Satzinger & Others, 2005) (Daoudi & Nurcan) Each iteration is a small part of project needed to be developed under four phases Inception, Elaboration, Construction and Transition. UP defines six disciplines in each phase to better manage iteration. These are - Business modeling, requirements, design, implementation, testing and deployment. (Satzinger & Others, 2005) Every iteration carry out different activities variation all discipline and deliver an increment at the end of iteration. Each increment developed during iteration consists of added functionality as compared to previous increment. So, iteration itself is capable of suit any design or requirement modification. (Satzinger & Others, 2005) (ISQA 8220 Notes)... ...fied Process also relies on extensive documentation, tight control, re-usability and effective modeling. (Rational, 1998) At PrintAndCopy, current IT department is moderately size and they rely totally on structured developmen t methods that provide extensive documentation but structured development methods lacks flexibility. Also, structured methodologies are not price and time effective. So, avoiding a major change in their current development practices yet adding more flexibility in development process UP would be best suited. UP will also allow IT team to re-use the existing developed components contributing to reduction in overall time and cost. (Satzinger & Others, 2005) Also, most of the IT employees are remotely located. This further aids to employee flexibility as this approach does not require frequent team and client meetings like scrum. (ISQA 8220 Notes)

Repetitive Strain Injury Essay -- Health, Musculoskeletal Injury

Repetitive strain injury is a term that encompasses a broad range of musculoskeletal conditions that normally total in sedentary dieers. The musculoskeletal injury occurs due to an accumulation of microtrauma ca customd by repeated soft tissue overload (Ratzlaff 2007). In other words, tissues in the embody are repeatedly injured with each injury being minor but, cumulatively, causing serious pain and damage to the body. Repetitive strain injury is non new phenomenon. It was first reported in the early 1900s as telegraphic operators cramp in men who operated Morse keys (Youngson 2005). As the name suggests, repetitive strain injury affect those who perform repeated tasks for long periods of time. Most people affected are those who spend the majority of their work day sitting at a desk or using a computer. Other groups who frequently suffer from repetitive strain injury are those who pulmonary tuberculosis a particular muscle or group of muscles repeatedly much(prenominal ) as musicians, knitters, and sewers. Factors contributing to repetitive strain injury are repeated use of same muscles, poor posture and sitting for long periods of time.Manifested primarily as pain in the forearm, shoulder or neck, repetitive strain injury is more common in women, tall people, smokers or those who are overweight. (Youngson 2005). Symptoms include pain anywhere in the fingers, hands, arms or upper spine. Repetitive strain injuries usually begin gradually and progress through distinct stages (Youngson 2005) and are easily manageable in the early stages. It is important to recognize the symptoms and treat early. Carpal delve syndrome is the most common type of repetitive strain injury and results from compression of the median nerve as it traverses the carpal tunnel ... ...biofeedback. A third interference commonly used is an ergonomic approach. This involves the minimization of exposure to risk factors in the workplace. One method of achieving this is by the altering or replacement of equipment that is causing the injury. some(prenominal) types of ergonomic keyboards are available for computer users which reduce the stress placed on the hands and wrists. Employees workstations can be altered to include equipment such as desks and chairs that help maintain proper posture reducing stress to the arms, upper torso, and neck. Frequent rest breaks are also encouraged by experts to asperse strain to all parts of the body. Repetitive strain injury is a condition that can affect a person of any age, gender, or race. Activities and tasks that wait insignificant, when performed repeatedly, have to ability to damage the body if left untreated.

The Jovian Planets Essay -- essays research papers

The Jovian Planets     Far beyond Earth in the solar nebula lies an ice belt and beyond that lay the quaternion Jovian planets. They atomic number 18 Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Jovian means "Jupiter- like" in which the rest of the Jovian planets do coincide with the name. Uranus Neptune and Saturn, every last(predicate) carry the very(prenominal) traits as Jupiter. The jovian planets are large gas giants that contain mainly a thick atmosphere of Hydrogen and helium. These planets do not have solid surfaces, rather they bonnie get denser with depth. They contain high mass and are usually anywhere from 15 to 318 clock the mass of nation. They also contain many satellites and the gravity is very much stronger than that of earth. The jovian planets inner structure probably consists of a rocky core of metals, water, ammonia and methane. Usually these cores are most the same size as earth possibly a little larger. It is also possible that Ura nus and Neptunes core is a liquid instead of a solid. The Jovian planets also have about the same rotational characteristics and all have rings around them. Jupiter, the first of the jovian planets, reigns supreme throughout the solar system. Named after the Roman god Jove, the formula of Olympus Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun and is also the largest planet in the Earths solar system. It is 318 times more massive than Earth and is two thirds of the mercurial mass in the solar system. Jupiters surface, unlike earth, is gaseous and not a solid. It is about 90% atomic number 1 and 10% helium with traces of methane, ammonia, water and rock. Jupiters interior is very similar to the Suns interior but with a far lower temperature. However, it is still unknown but Jupiter is believed to have a core of liquid metallic hydrogen. This exotic element can only be achieved at pressure greater than 4 million bars. Jupiter radiates more dexterity in space than it receives from the sun . The interior of Jupiter is hot and has been estimated to be 20000 degrees Kelvin. The heat is generated by the Kelvin- Hemholtz mechanism, or the gravitational compression of a planet. It gives off about 1.5 to 2 times more energy than the sun. It is speculated that the source of this heat is due to the rapid rotation of the planet and its liquid metallic hydrogen core.Liquid Metallic hydrogen consists mainly of ionized protons and electrons and is the electric... ... tidal forces, which caused nitro gas volcanoes on its surface.Different from the terrestrial planets, the Jovian planets are basically big balls of gas. The jovian planets seemed to be organize around the same time from the solar nebula. Jupiter and Saturn are the closest in nature to each other with Neptune and Uranus taking on a few of their traits. They all carry the same characteristics in their Classification. The Jovian planets are composed mainly of helium and hydrogen. They have a liquid or small rocky core . They are usually high in mass and low in density. They have many satellites and the gravity is much stronger than Earths. They also all share the same banding and zoning winds. With these characteristics defined with each description given it is easy to see how the planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are Jovian or "Jupiter - like".Bibliographies Seeds, Michael A., Foundations of Astronomy copyright 1994, Wadsworth inc. Considine, Douglas M. cutting edge Nostrands Scientific Encyclopedia, volume eight Copyright 1995, Van Nostrand Rienholdt, NYMaran, Stephen P. , The Astronomy and Astrophysics Encyclopedia, Copyright 1992, Van Nostrand Rienholdt, NY

Osteomyelitis Essay -- Health, Diseases

OsteomyelitisOsteomyelitis is a common bone infection caused by bacteria or in some cases, fungus 1. Osteomyelitis generally occurs by infection of bacteria in several different ways, including via the bloodstream, from neighboring argonas of infection, or due to non-sterile joint replacements and internal fixations much(prenominal) as fractures 2. In 90% of cases, an S. aereus bacterium is the microbial culprit responsible for osteomyelitis 3. In the cases of open would fractures, osteomyelitis can interfere with normal bone healing and variation 4. Symptoms of osteomyelitis include bone pain, fever, malaise, swelling, redness, chills, excessive sweating, and joint pains 5. It is reported that in 20% of the cases, the infection is hematogenous, or spread by the blood 6. The incidence of spinal anaesthesia osteomyelitis was reported to be 1 in 450,000 in 2001 7. The incidence of vertebral osteomyelitis is reported to be 24 cases per 1,000,000 and the incidence in children is approximately 1 in 5,000 8. Approximately 10-15% of people with vertebral osteomyelitis develop spinal-cord compression and approximately 30% of patients with long bone osteomyelitis develop deep vein thrombosis (DVT) 9. Mortality rates are generally low unless sepsis occurs 10. The overall incidence of osteomyelitis was found to be higher in developing countries compared to developed nations 11. Current Clinical Standard of CareThe online gold standard treatment for osteomyelitis is gentamycin or vancomycin impregnated poly methyl methacrylate (PMMA) beads 12. These beads are surgically implanted at the site of bacterial infection, and the antibiotic drug will diffuse from these beads 12. Both vancomycin and gentamycin inhibit bacterial g... ..., the in vivo studies show that the effectiveness of the delivery system in terms of bacterial growth inhibition is comparable to the clinical standard of care, the PMMA beads. Further studies would include determining the compressiv e strengths of the PUR scaffolds to decide where they could be placed in a load-bearing setting, systemic toxicity studies to ensure that neither the vancomycin nor PUR is present in toxically high concentrations in the serum after implantation, and a prolonged study to show that the PUR scaffold is in fact biodegradable, thereby by-passing the second surgical step which is required for the PMMA beads. Li et al 21 also did not do any studies comparing the PUR-LTI and PUR-HDIt scaffolds below the same experimental conditions. These studies would also be critical to determine which scaffold formulation should be pursued long-term.